Part 2: Challenges and opportunities
Natural resources values
The ACT’s natural assets promote social and economic wellbeing (e.g. clean water, aesthetically pleasing landscapes, a sense of place, recreational opportunities) and contribute to wider ecosystem services across the region. Keeping them in good condition is the best way to ensure they continue to deliver benefi ts as well as protecting their capacity to adapt to uncertain future climate.
The ACT community is an asset to the territory. People are a part of the landscape and even while they are the main source of pressure on other assets (land, water and biodiversity), they also hold the capacity to reduce the pressure and repair previous damage.
Status: The ACT community is changing. As household sizes decrease, pressure for land development is increasing. Increasing affluence and lifestyle choices also increase pressure on natural resources.
Management: Better natural resource management requires acceptance of, and involvement and activity in sustainability issues by the community. Canberrans are better educated and wealthier than in any other capital city in Australia. This gives them great potential to become involved.
The land is the substrate on which communities (natural and built) are supported. The land needs to be protected from erosion by wind and water, rising salt, loss of soil condition, increasing acidity or alkalinity, and development.
Status: The precise condition of much of the land in the ACT is not known, as baseline data are not available. A comprehensive soil and water data collection process and land capability study, funded through the Decade of Landcare Program, has identified some land-use issues and given some detail of land condition. However, the data are in an inaccessible format and now need to be reviewed. Further studies need to be undertaken to give an accurate baseline 4.
Management: Challenges include, increasing soil permeability, structural stability, increasing nutrient cycling and moistureholding capacity, increasing soil carbon, reducing soil erosion and topsoil loss and enhancing hydrological connectivity.
Photos Micheal Schultz
- ACT Commissioner for the Environment 2003 ACT State of the Environment Report: Land Degradation Indicator Result 2004.
Natural resources values - 2
Water resources include the water in rivers, streams and ponds – the water that ACT residents use, the water that flows down the Murrumbidgee River to other consumers and the water that supports biodiversity.
Status: Although water quality has varied over time and across the ACT as land-use and weather have changed, the ACT has a minimal impact on water quality in the Murrumbidgee. Land planning and management influence transport and delivery of pollutants into the main drainage system. Elevated salt loads are derived from salts excreted from the human population rather than from degraded catchment condition. Levels of blue-green algae are often above safe levels. Drought, the bushfires of 2001 and 2003, large storms and accidental discharge of sewage also compromise water safety.
Under current climatic conditions, the amount of water available is also an issue both for direct human use and environmental flows.
Management: Challenges include securing enough water for all consumers (rural, urban and environment), ensuring that it is of an appropriate quality and that it is used efficiently.
Diversity of life (plants, animals and other organisms) is essential to maintain a healthy natural environment. Keeping the variety of species is important, but so too is keeping a diversity of the ecosystems that provide their homes.
Status: Two ecological communities and 17 species are endangered in the ACT. A further 14 species are vulnerable and others continue to be threatened.
Management: Challenges include the need to maintain the number and variability of existing species so that they are more able to cope in times of stress; and the need to reduce threats (e.g. from weeds, development, fire).
Photo Environment ACT
Photo Sarah Ryan
Pressures on natural resources
Although the condition of some natural assets in the ACT has improved, other assets are suffering from a steady decline in condition. In rural areas for example, lessees have learnt more about managing stock density and pastures so that the land is better covered in drought, with ongoing benefits for land, water and biodiversity, as well as landholders. But pressures resulting from urban expansion, fragmentation of natural resources, climate change, pest plants and animals, exploitation of water systems and fire are continuing to degrade assets both inside and outside the city limits. Addressing the causes of decline (the pressures) is usually cheaper than having to repair the consequences later.
Canberra’s early development was focused around Lake Burley Griffin. However in 1967 the then National Capital Development Commission developed and adopted the ‘Y Plan’ laying out future urban development around a series of central shopping and commercial areas (or town centres) that would be linked by freeways. The layout of this plan roughly resembled the shape of the letter Y – Tuggeranong is located at the base of the ‘Y’; Belconnen and Gungahlin are at the ends of its arms.
The Canberra Spatial Plan 5 (ACT Government 2004) goes beyond the ‘Y’ Plan by:
- specifying that 50% of future growth will be within existing urban areas, thereby promoting increasing intensification
- specifying that new greenfield developments are no more than 15 km from Civic and
- identifying two new areas for greenfield residential development – the Molonglo Valley and the Kowen plateau.
Challenge: The challenge for Canberra’s planners and developers is to maintain an effective balance between providing for continuing urban development (rather than expansion) and at the same time protecting the urban open space and adjoining natural areas with their environmental values that are closely woven into the fabric of the city.
Canberra is a planned city, and a conscious creation of an emerging nation. It is still only partly developed and it is still maturing. By international
standards it is still small.
In many ways, the city remains the Bush Capital, set into an environment as Australian as bush flies. It reflects both the imposition of European settlers’ ideals on to the harsh setting of the new continent, and, perhaps fortuitously, the gradual education of Australians in the ways of adapting to and respecting the environment which the earliest settlers, the Aborigines, had themselves learned over thousands of years.
During the next decade, in the lead up to the centenary of Federation, the National Capital needs to reflect and symbolise the changing and maturing character of the nation as a whole.
Foreword to the National Capital Plan 1991
Population (2007): 340 800 with all but 0.3% living in urban centres
Annual growth rate: 1.3%
Average size of household: 2.6 (projected to decline to between 2.2 and 2.3 by 2026, the same as the national average)
Population is ageing as the birth rate declines so that the society is moving from a relatively young to a middle aged population
Median weekly income: between $600 and $799 (national average is $400 to $599)
High level of educational achievement: 49.1% have a bachelors degree or above (nationally it is 24.1%)
- The Canberra Spatial Plan is not a statutory planning document. Rather, strategic planning for the ACT resides with the National Capital Authority and is administered through the National Capital Plan – the ACT’s sole statutory strageic planning document.
Pressures on natural resources - 2
Most of the ACT’s endangered and vulnerable plants, animals and ecological communities are found in lowland areas where they are subject to pressures from urban development and expansion.
As Canberra expands and new urban areas are developed both in the ACT and nearby NSW, the remaining lowland ecological ecosystems are becoming more fragmented and isolated, reducing their resilience and long-term chances of survival. Edge pressures on vulnerable species and communities also increase as the boundaries of remaining woodlands and grasslands increase in length. Fragmentation may also occur through incursion of infrastructure (e.g. power transmission lines, tracks and roads) through natural areas.
Challenge: Limit fragmentation so that ecologically viable units remain.
Rural land – 23% (17% as 150 rural leases and 6% as government-managed rural managed land)
Roads, lakes, rivers, urban infrastructure – 10%
Urban areas – 8%
Forest plantations – 4% (mature and replanted pine in Kowen, Majura, Uriarra, Pierces Ck, and Ingeldene)
Water management – 3% (Lower Cotter)
Conservation – increased from 52% to 54% since 1990
Urban areas – continuing to intensify and expand steadily (roughly 2000 houses each year)
The climate of the ACT is changing. Warmer temperatures and windier conditions will result in greater evaporation. More frequent and severe storms and fl oods will result in less evenly spread rainfall. Less overall rainfall will result in reduced run-off. Increased use of heating and air conditioning is likely to exacerbate an already existing heat island effect that means Canberra is between 1°C and 2°C warmer than the surrounding countryside and storms approach but pass by the city.
Challenge: These changes pose significant challenges for natural and built environments – increasing demands on water and energy – and severely affecting the ability of native plants and animals to survive. Changed weather patterns will challenge species near their environmental edges; while more severe storms and rainfall in different seasons will lead to loss of resilience. Feral and pest plants and animals are likely to be favoured. Bushfires are likely to increase.
The ACT Government’s Climate Change Strategy 2007–2025, Weathering the Change, released in July 2007, includes the first of a series of five-year action plans aimed at reducing the 2000 emission levels by 60% by 2050. The strategy concentrates on:
- smarter use of resources
- designing and planning Canberra to be more sustainable
- building the ACT community’s capacity to adapt to and
manage both current and future changes to climate and - improving our understanding of climate change, its causes and effects, and how we need to respond.
Average temperatures: 22.5°C in summer, 10.8°C in winter
Average rainfall of 630 mm falling fairly evenly throughout the year
Photo Micheal Schultz
Pressures on natural resources - 3
Following European occupation of Australia, plants and animals have been introduced – both intentionally and accidentally – in a steady flow. Most of these plants and animals do not pose serious threats, but some have become serious pests.
Some introduced plants are recognised as weeds of national significance (e.g. the blackberry, serrated tussock and willow) that threaten primary production and natural areas. Others are environmental weeds (e.g. cotoneasters).
Intentional introductions include plants given to householders and also planted liberally in city parks and gardens in the 1960s and 1970s. Others were introduced as pasture grasses into grazing areas that are now within the Canberra Nature Park and have consequently achieved weed status as land use has changed. Accidental introductions include seeds imported on machinery and in agricultural produce (e.g. hay for horses), or carried on wind in dust storms.
Pest plants and animals spread as the landscape is disturbed such as by urban development and opportunities for transport (e.g. on vehicles and machinery) are provided. Weeds more easily invade the ACT’s grassy ecosystems than areas that are forested. Even in moderately undisturbed areas, drought or grazing can open up the grass canopy so that windblown weed seed can take root and spread. Grazing by native or introuced animals can increase a weed’s rate of spread.
Introduced pests threaten biodiversity. For example, the European wasp has caused localised decline in native insect and insectivorous/honeyeater bird popluations.
Challenge: Prevention of further introductions of potential and actual pest plants and animals, and reduction in existing weed and feral animal problems through:
- improved community education about pest plant and animal control
- identification of priority areas that coincide with conservation goals and maximise connectivity
- strategic planning that includes identification of priority weeds and areas to be protected, as well as methods of control and
- recognition that weed control is a regional issue and
requires a cross jurisdictional and integrated approach.
Mammals: rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), dingo/dog (Canis lupus), deer (Cervus spp. & Dama spp.), pig (Sus scrofa), goat (Capra hircus), ferret (Mustela putoris), European red fox (Vulpes vulpes)
Birds: red-whiskered bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus)
Amphibians: slider turtles (Trachemys spp.)
Fish: pike characin (Acestrorhynchidae); giant tigerfish (Hydrocynus spp., H. goliath); bowfin (Amia calva); climbing perch (Anabas testudineus); banded or spotted sunfish, largemouth bass, bluegill (Centrarchidae); snooks (Centropomus); Nile perch/forktail lates/sea bass (Lates microlepis, L. niloticus); snake head (Channa spp.); redeye & red piranha (Colossoma spp., Serrasalmus spp., Pygocentrus spp.); giant & yellow belly cichlid (Boulengerochromis microlepis); tilapia (Oreochromis spp., Sarotherodon spp., all Tilapia spp. except T. buttikoferi); pink, slender, greenwoods, Mortimers, Cunean and green happy (Sargochromis spp.); Serranochromis spp., African pike-characin, tubenose poacher, fin eaters (Citharinidae – subfamily Ichthyborinae); weatherloach (Misgurnus anguillicaudatus); carp (Aristichthys nobilis, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Cyprinus carpio, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix); copper mahseer (Barbodes hexagonolepis); Catla (Catla catla); giant barb (Catlocarpio siamensis); mrigal (Cirrhinus cirrhosus); orange fin labeo, rohu (Labeo calabasu, L. rohita); freshwater minnow (Zacco platypus); river carp, Deccan, high backed, Jungha, Putitor, Thai Mahseer (Tor spp.); pygmy sunfish (Elassoma spp.); Trahiras (Erythrinus spp., Hoplerythrinus spp., Hoplias spp.); pikes (Esox spp., Hepsetus odoe); ninespine stickleback (Pungitius pungitius); gobies (Acanthogobius fl avimanus, Tridentiger trigonocephalus, Oxyeleotris marmorata); aba aba (Gymnarchus niloticus); electric eel (Electrophorus electricus); American, armoured or alligator gars (Atractosteus spp., Lepisosteus spp.); bottlenose, Cornish jack (Mormyrops anguilloides); pike minnow, pike killifish (Belonesox belizanus); Gambusia (Gambusia spp.); African lungfish (Protopterus annectens); Valencia toothcarp (Valencia hispanica); catfi sh (Anaspidoglanis macrostoma, Bagrus ubangensis, Chaca spp., Clarias spp., Oxydoras spp., Schilbe mystus, Silurus spp., Trichomycteridae family, Heteropneustes fossilis, Malapterurus spp.)
Invertebrates: red imported fire ant (Solenopsis invicta), European wasp (Vespula germanica), red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii)
Pressures on natural resources - 4
Catchments and waterways in the ACT are managed with the aim of achieving sustainable and appropriate water conditions. An increasing emphasis is being placed on improved design and management of urban stormwater systems to reduce urban impacts on water quality (e.g. by installing gross pollutant traps, water quality control ponds, wetlands and vegetated fl oodways).
Extraction of ground and surface water to supply urban and rural residents and industry will continue to place pressure of the natural waterways of the ACT and neighbouring NSW. Both excessive run-off and pollutants (e.g. hydrocarbon, herbicides, pesticides and nutrients) also pose a significant threat to the health of rivers and streams and continuing vigilance is required to counter these threats (see Targets in Part 4 for more information).
Challenge: The challenge is to achieve an integrated approach to catchment management through a range of measures including:
- development controls
- controls on water abstraction
- licensing of end of pipe discharges
- regulation of non-point source discharges through erosion and sediment control plans and
- safe control of stormwater so that its best use in
environmental and municipal terms is achieved, while water
quality is not compromised.
Broad-kernel espartillo (Achnatherum caudatum), alligator weed (Alternanthera philoxeroides), cabomba (Cabomba caroliniana), spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa), horsetail (Equisetum spp.), Senegal tea plant (Gymnocoronis spilanthoides), kochia (Kochia scoparia), lagarosiphon (Lagarosiphon major), parrot’s feather (Myriophyllum aquaticum), lobed & Chilean needlegrass (Nassella charruana, N. neesiana), Mexican feather grass (N. tenuissima), serrated tussock (N. trichotoma), parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus), water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes), salvinia (Salvinia molesta), fireweed (Senecio madagascariensis), Rhus tree (Toxicodendron succedaneum), thistles (Carduus nutans, C. pycnocephalus, C. tenuiflorus, C. lanatus, Onopordum acanthium, O. illyricum), broom species (all Cytisus & Genista species), African boxthorn (Lycium ferocissimum), sweet briar (also known as briar rose) (Rosa rubiginosa), willows (all Salix spp. excluding S. babylonica, S. x calodendron & S. x reichardtii), gorse (Ulex europaeus), Noogoora & Bathurst burr (Xanthium occidentale, X. spinosum), hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), Paterson’s curse (Echium plantagineum), viper’s bugloss (E. vulgare), African love grass (Eragrostis curvula), St John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum), radiata pine (Pinus radiata), all blackberry except for permitted cultivars (Rubus fruticosus , Cootamundra wattle (Acacia baileyana), prickly acacia (Acacia nilotica ssp. indica), box elder Acer negundo), tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), black alder (Alnus glutinosa), pond apple (Annona glabra), bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides), nettle tree (Celtis australis), bitou bush (also known as boneseed (Chrysanthemoides monilifera), pampas grass (Cortaderia jubata, C. selloana), cotoneasters (Cotoneaster franchettii, C. glaucophyllus, C. pannosus, C. alicifolius, C. simonsii), rubber vine (Cryptostegia grandifl ora), water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes), English ivy (Hedera helix), hymenachne (Hymenachne amplexicaulis), lantana (Lantana camara), Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), broad- & narrow-leaf privet (Ligustrum lucidum, L. sinense), mimosa (Mimosa pigra), parkinsonia (Parkinsonia aculeata), yellow bamboo (Phyllostachys aurea), white & Lombardy poplars (Populus alba, P. nigra ‘Italica’), mesquite (Prosopis spp.), firethorn (Pyracantha angustifolia, P. coccinea, P. fortuneana), false acacia (Robinia pseudoacacia), service tree (also known as rowan) (Sorbus spp.), Spanish broom (Spartium junceum), Athel pine (Tamarix aphylla), periwinkle (Vinca major)
Pressures on natural resources - 5
Fire is part of the Australian environment and necessary for the continuing survival of some ecological communities. However it needs to be managed to protect human life and property.
Fire management must take a whole-of-landscape approach. While too frequent burning can cause irreversible changes, the effect of bushfires tends to be temporary:
- some native vegetation is adapted to fire and much of it is dependent on fire for reproduction
- biodiversity can recover to a certain extent (e.g. from seed beds that are not totally depleted) although some species may not recover at all
- water quality adversely affected by fire recovers gradually as riparian and hill slope vegetation recovers
- run-off from burnt slopes is initially higher and then declines as burnt vegetation re-grows.
Challenge: To ensure a whole-of-landscape management of fire hazard so that the long-term effects of bushfires are minimised.
Photo Urban Services
Photo Micheal Schultz
Opportunities for response
The ACT has a considerable capacity to halt and reverse threats to its natural resources. It is a compact area with a well-educated, culturally diverse, relatively wealthy and environmentally informed population who have access to quality local scientific advice. The ACT’s leasehold land tenure system, with significant areas in public ownership results in these areas being overseen by a government that combines the functions of state and local government into one governing body.
Weaknesses are the lack of the larger private enterprises that could act as a driver for private sector involvement and the challenge of addressing the requirements of the ACT as a territory community as well as the national capital.
A strong driver for change lies in how much people want to preserve the ‘bush’. Action by individuals, community groups, business and governments working together is needed to achieve lasting improvement in natural assets. Canberra’s population represents capacity that has not yet been fully drawn on.
As well as participating in organised activities and investments as outlined in this plan, individuals can actively help to manage and conserve the ACT’s natural resources by:
- reducing their ecological footprint through reducing their use of energy and material goods in their home or workplace (e.g. using less water and energy in houses, reducing car and fuel use)
- reducing direct damage caused to natural resources by their activities (e.g. reducing stormwater run-off from gardens, ensuring that pets are on leads when exercising in those parts of the Canberra Nature Park where pets are allowed, removing and destroying invasive weeds in gardens)
- joining a group involved in restoring degraded natural resources of the ACT (e.g. ACT Land Keepers is planting trees in bushfire-ravaged areas; Seeds for Survival is collecting and growing locally occurring plants for replanting degraded areas, Working Waterways is developing new wetlands and restoring damaged riparian areas).
(ABS 2006/07 data)
- 50.7% were female
- 49.3% were male
- 1.2% were Indigenous (2.3% of the Australian population is indigenous)
- 19.1% were children between 0 and 14 years
of age - 20.2% were 55 years and over
- 29.3% were professionals
- 19.1% were clerical and administrative workers
- 15.4% were managers
- 10.6% technicians and trades workers
- 9.0% were community and personal service workers
- 7.5% were sales workers
- 7.7% were labourers, and machinery operators and drivers
Approximately 22% of ACT residents undertake voluntary, unpaid work for an organisation.
Opportunities for response - 2
Individuals, organisations and businesses are able to participate in and partner natural resource management projects by providing labour or money to projects:
- several schools participate in Waterwatch projects
- people are able to contribute to Landcare Australia or invest in bush heritage funds
- many businesses make time available to their staff to participate in environmental projects
- people and organisations are able to purchase greenhouse gas offsets for travel and other consumption of energy and resources by paying a premium on car registrations, energy costs, etc.